Philosophical thinking

People think all the time, but there are many different types of thinking. You can live your life without thinking independently or producing many thoughts of your own. Simply noticing ideas that pop into your mind is not yet thinking. Repeating thoughts picked up from elsewhere lacks the independent activity and reflection that turns random ideas into thoughts. People think much less often than they realise: although thoughts and memories flow through the mind effortlessly, thinking requires conscious effort. The world around us is full of all kinds of claims and beliefs, so it is important for people to learn to evaluate them critically. People constantly rely on habitual thoughts that are rarely questioned.

The Finnish politician and thinker Yrjö Källinen (1886–1976) characterised thinking as follows: "Reflection that follows conventional, habitual paths is not reflection that breaks down old patterns and liberates new ones, even if it continues for a thousand years and is practised by the most talented minds." According to Källinen, most people never think for themselves, but instead let their society think for them. They inherit a set of thought patterns from their culture and upbringing, which they then organise. However, this organisation does not necessarily constitute actual thinking. Most people's belief systems are the result of their upbringing and surrounding community, and critically evaluating one's own ways of thinking can be difficult and uncomfortable.

Above all else, thinking requires courage. It requires the strength to break free from outdated ways of thinking and embrace new insights and the conclusions derived from them. Taking things through to their logical conclusion can easily lead to dangerous territory. This can make you want to stop and return to what is familiar and usual.

Even more courage is required to express the results of one's thinking. Belonging to a community usually involves repeating what everyone else says. If one's own thoughts have led to a different conclusion, sharing them can feel risky.

The purpose of studying philosophy is to train your mind. Thinking is a skill that can be learned. Through skilful thinking, we can discover our own interpretations of the world and life, or at least determine which of these interpretations are justified. As your thinking becomes more refined, you also become more independent. Philosophy develops thinking skills and provides conceptual tools to support independent reflection.

Philosophy has two possible roots: wonder and crisis. Philosophical thinking can begin with a sense of wonder, which leads to questions and attempts at answers. These questions should lead to new ideas. Strange and surprising questions can reveal a fresh perspective — the seed of truth. Philosophy has always sought big, stirring questions and small, important ones.

A crisis, on the other hand, describes a situation in which traditional explanations are unsatisfactory. Philosophy was used to critique and improve the lives of societies when expanding trade began to challenge their traditional ways of life.

Wonder and crisis that raise questions and prompt attempts at finding answers. What is life ultimately about? Which goals are worth pursuing, and what means are acceptable for achieving them? Philosophy evaluates established customs and self-evident truths

Questions help us to learn new things and push our thinking forward. However, simply asking questions is not enough. They must inspire attempts at answers, which in turn force us to ask new questions. Thought is driven by the interplay of questions and answers, developing understanding and breaking down preconceptions. One of philosophy's tasks is to encourage people to immerse themselves in the flow of thought without prejudice.

Philosophy is never satisfied by stating that not everything can be explained and leaving interesting questions unasked. Everything can be thought about rationally, whether or not sufficient explanations are found. While science seeks to explain how the world works, philosophy asks what the world is like, why it is the way it is, and how it should be. Why are we here? What is essential and important? Philosophy also evaluates science, asking how reliable information can be obtained.

The most well-known philosophical questions are eternal questions that have appealed to people throughout the ages. What constitutes a good life? What is death? What is right and what is wrong? While these questions remain eternally interesting, others are products of their time and simply cease to be of interest. Each era also produces questions that are interesting in their own right.

Studying the history of philosophy improves thinking skills. However, many of the problems and theories that emerged from the ancient world and the Enlightenment are difficult to understand correctly. Over time, many questions have become so complex that answering them requires extensive specialised philosophical knowledge. Knowledge of the history of philosophy helps us to understand the significance of fundamental questions that may initially seem absurd. For instance, someone might ask whether the universe is only made up of an individual's states of consciousness and sensations. Readers familiar with the history of philosophy will understand the background to this question. According to a view called solipsism[term: solipsism – A philosophical view which states that one's own perceptions and sensations are all that exists. One cannot know for certain whether there are entities that exist independently of oneself, because one can only perceive other entities through their own perceptions.], the only things that exist are the states of consciousness and sensations of the conscious self. This question was originally related to the nature of knowledge, as humans cannot observe the world outside their own perceptions. Underlying this was the question posed by scepticism[term: scepticism – A philosophical position that emphasises doubt and questions the possibility of knowledge.] about the nature of certain knowledge. The possibilities of knowledge were explored on the basis that humans can only ever be certain of the existence of their own perceptions.

A philosophical question outlines the problem or problems to be considered. Philosophical problems are usually open-ended, with no immediately apparent answer and often no single correct response. Studying human behaviour is one thing, but pondering whether humans have free will is quite another. Similarly, it is one thing to study natural phenomena, and quite another to ponder the very possibility of knowledge. Traditional philosophical problems are unsolvable, yet worth pondering. If an answer can be found through observation, the question is not philosophical. Even the direction in which the answer should be sought is not always clear. A philosophical problem may initially remain unanswered, raising new questions instead. The solution must be consistent and take many different perspectives into account. Not all answers are equally valid because the reasoning behind some of them may be less sound than those behind others.

Scientific research enables us to observe reality and attempt to explain the cause-and-effect relationships that we observe. In this case, we seek answers to concrete, precisely defined and unambiguous research questions, utilising observations and experimental research designs. In other words, research problems must be testable through research.

In philosophy, however, reality is examined conceptually. Unlike the special sciences, philosophy does not have a limited field of study – almost any subject can be examined philosophically. While science can determine the health benefits of different lifestyles, philosophy questions what the concepts of health and benefit mean. As people often justify their choices based on usefulness, it is appropriate to consider the concept of usefulness. Many concepts raise philosophical problems.

Philosophy and various scientific disciplines are united by their critical, analytical and conceptual precision. However, unlike other sciences, philosophy does not progress in the sense that the amount of knowledge grows and becomes more precise as research advances. Nevertheless, the conceptual clarification of philosophical problems and the formulation of contemporary issues also demonstrate the progress of philosophical thinking.

Questions define problems, while problems can lead to chains of questions and answers. For example, a philosopher cannot determine the meaning of truth through scientific observation alone. However, the concept of truth itself is essential. Without the ability to distinguish between truth and falsehood, communication would become meaningless, cooperation between people would be stifled by a lack of trust, and societies would collapse. We must therefore think about what is true. Philosophers can investigate what people consider to be true and evaluate the arguments presented in support of these views. For example, a philosophical analysis of existing moral concepts can be fruitful. Nevertheless, merely observing the world is insufficient to determine which concepts, problems, questions and answers are philosophically significant.

Another philosophical problem is the question of what philosophy is. The fact that philosophers have not been able to reach a consensus on this question for several thousand years is a clear illustration of the difficulty of philosophical debate. There is also no agreement on the purpose of philosophy. Philosophers are characterised by their tendency to ponder problems that seem, at first glance, to be beyond comprehension.

The problematic premise of philosophy could be formulated as follows: "Every problem has a solution, and every solution creates a new problem."

Recent developments in physics have been described as a shift from addressing big questions to addressing small ones. Once enough of these smaller questions have been answered, it will be possible to address the larger questions. For instance, the discovery of DNA helped to answer the question of what life is. The results of scientific research can inform the consideration of philosophical questions.

Scientific research demonstrates which specific issues are worth investigating and what kind of conceptual breakthroughs are required to advance research. However, from a historical perspective, conceptual shifts and changes in worldview relating to significant questions must have occurred to identify smaller questions that contribute to our research knowledge.

Traditionally, philosophy has focused on considering big, general questions. However, philosophical analysis also benefits from the knowledge gained by studying specific questions. For instance, providing credible answers to questions in the philosophy of mind requires knowledge produced by special sciences. However, building an understanding that brings together the results of scientific research requires an open mind and sensitivity to broader questions.

Although philosophy may sound like thinking for the sake of thinking, it has always had practical significance, too. As well as generating movement in thought, philosophy motivates the construction of a shared reality in many ways.

In ancient times, philosophy often focused on the philosophy of life[term: philosophy of life – A philosophical tradition that seeks to define the criteria for a good life.]. Ancient philosophers engaged in exercises and strove to live according to the teachings of a particular school. Eastern philosophy is similar to ancient philosophy in that it focuses on self-development. For instance, Rajayoga, a school of Hindu philosophy, comprises numerous meditation exercises designed to cultivate mental qualities. Philosophy strongly influenced the development of ancient cultures.

Nowadays, philosophy tends to emphasise academic and intellectual curiosity related to specific issues. While this does not necessarily determine everyday solutions, it does influence the formation of academic culture. Nevertheless, philosophy can still have great personal significance.

In terms of one's own life, philosophy can be a means of self-development and self-improvement. It can be applied to many areas of life, from reflecting on personal choices to solving problems at work. Of course, people can live their lives without reflecting on the world or themselves and still be reasonably content. But is it possible to live a good life[term: the good life – The good life was a central goal for the philosophy of life in antiquity. For ancient philosophers, philosophy should teach us how to live better.] without self-examination? According to Socrates, at least, a life without self-examination is not worth living. When you have a better understanding of yourself and the world, it becomes easier to trust the choices you make.

Studying philosophy also supports the development of creativity and problem-solving skills. These are precisely the qualities asked of employees in today's expertise-oriented working life. For the overall benefit of society, it is important that citizens are capable of critical thinking. A functioning democracy needs citizens who can think independently, engage with political debate and address social injustices.

The ability to critically evaluate political and economic actors and discuss social issues are civic skills required for democracy. Philosophy supports the development of general thinking and problem-solving skills, as well as discussion and civic skills.

Philosophy enhances our ability to recognise and understand the concepts underlying human thought and action. Attentive and unbiased thinking enables us to identify the blind spots, irrationalities and immoralities of our time. Slavery, for example, was once widely accepted, but a few critical individuals recognised it as a problem and began to speak out against it. Are there similar blind spots in the present day that only trained thinkers can recognise? 

Thinking skills also protect against hype and extremism. Skilful thinking increases individuals' independence and their ability to make decisions about their own lives.